Annotation of www/crypto.html, Revision 1.89
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1.10 deraadt 4: <title>Cryptography in OpenBSD</title>
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1.45 deraadt 15: <img align=left alt="[OpenBSD]" height=166 width=197 SRC="images/blowfish-notext.jpg">
16: <br>
17: <br>
18: <br>
1.61 deraadt 19: "The mantra of any good security engineer is: "Security is not a
1.45 deraadt 20: product, but a process." It's more than designing strong cryptography
21: into a system; it's designing the entire system such that all security
22: measures, including cryptography, work together."<br>
23: <br>
24: -- Bruce Schneier, author of "Applied Cryptography".
25: <br clear=all>
1.37 deraadt 26: <h2><font color=#e00000>Cryptography</font><hr></h2>
1.32 deraadt 27:
28: <strong>Index</strong><br>
1.41 louis 29: <a href=#why>Why do we ship cryptography?</a>.<br>
1.47 provos 30: <a href=#ssh>OpenSSH</a>.<br>
1.32 deraadt 31: <a href=#prng>Pseudo Random Number Generators</a> (PRNG): ARC4, ...<br>
32: <a href=#hash>Cryptographic Hash Functions</a>: MD5, SHA1, ...<br>
33: <a href=#trans>Cryptographic Transforms</a>: DES, Blowfish, ...<br>
1.51 deraadt 34: <a href=#hardware>Cryptographic Hardware support</a><br>
1.32 deraadt 35: <a href=#people>International Cryptographers wanted</a><br>
1.33 deraadt 36: <a href=#papers>Further Reading</a><br>
1.1 deraadt 37: <p>
1.32 deraadt 38: <hr>
39:
40: <a name=why></a>
1.42 deraadt 41: <h3><font color=#e00000>Why do we ship cryptography?</font></h3><p>
1.32 deraadt 42:
43: In three words: <strong>because we can</strong>.<p>
44:
1.1 deraadt 45: The OpenBSD project is based in Canada.<p>
46:
1.23 deraadt 47: The <a href=ECL.html>Export Control List of Canada</a>
48: places no significant restriction on the export of
1.5 deraadt 49: cryptographic software, and is even more explicit about the free
50: export of freely-available cryptographic software. Marc Plumb has
51: done
1.2 deraadt 52: <a href=http://insight.mcmaster.ca/org/efc/pages/doc/crypto-export.html>
1.31 aaron 53: some research to test the cryptographic laws</a>.
1.2 deraadt 54: <p>
1.1 deraadt 55:
1.3 deraadt 56: Hence the OpenBSD project has embedded cryptography into numerous places
57: in the operating system. We require that the cryptographic software we
58: use be <a href=policy.html>freely available and with good licenses</a>.
1.32 deraadt 59: We do not directly use cryptography with nasty patents.
1.13 deraadt 60: We also require that such software is from countries with useful export
1.16 deraadt 61: licenses because we do not wish to break the laws of any country.
62: The cryptographic software components which we use currently were
63: written in Argentina, Australia, Canada, Germany, Greece, Norway, and
64: Sweden.
65: <p>
1.7 deraadt 66:
1.15 deraadt 67: When we create OpenBSD releases or snapshots we build our release
68: binaries in free countries to assure that the sources and binaries we
69: provide to users are free of tainting. In the past our release binary
70: builds have been done in Canada, Sweden, and Germany.<p>
71:
1.85 hin 72: OpenBSD ships with Kerberos IV included. The codebase
1.83 pvalchev 73: we use is the exportable KTH-based release from Sweden. Our X11 source
74: has been extended to make use of Kerberos IV as well.<p>
75:
1.85 hin 76: The next release will ship with the Heimdal implementation of Kerberos V,
77: also from KTH in Sweden.
1.81 hin 78: <p>
1.16 deraadt 79:
1.67 deraadt 80:
1.66 deraadt 81: <img align=right src="images/vpnc-test-partner.gif">
1.87 brad 82: OpenBSD was the first operating system to ship with an IPsec stack.
83: We've been including IPsec since early OpenBSD 2.1 release in 1997.
84: Our fully conformant in-kernel IPsec stack, with hardware acceleration
1.66 deraadt 85: based on a number of cards, and our own free ISAKMP daemon, is used as
1.87 brad 86: one of the machines in the IPsec conformance testbed run by
1.67 deraadt 87: <a href="http://www.vpnc.org">VPNC</a>.
1.66 deraadt 88: <br clear=all>
89: <p>
90:
1.15 deraadt 91: Today cryptography is an important means for enhancing the <a
92: href=security.html>security</a> of an operating system. The
1.42 deraadt 93: cryptography utilized in OpenBSD can be classified into various
94: aspects, described as follows.<p>
1.10 deraadt 95:
1.39 louis 96: <a name=ssh></a>
1.47 provos 97: <h3><font color=#e00000>OpenSSH</font></h3><p>
1.39 louis 98:
1.40 deraadt 99: What is the first thing most people do after installing OpenBSD?
1.55 deraadt 100: They install Secure Shell
101: (<a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=ssh>ssh</a>)
1.46 deraadt 102: from the ports tree or the packages on the FTP sites. Until now, that is.<p>
1.39 louis 103:
1.55 deraadt 104: As of the 2.6 release, OpenBSD contains
1.50 provos 105: <a href="http://www.openssh.com/">OpenSSH</a>, an absolutely free and
106: patent unencumbered version of ssh.
1.55 deraadt 107: As of the OpenBSD 2.6 release date,
108: <a href="http://www.openssh.com/">OpenSSH</a> interoperated with ssh
109: version 1 and had many added features,
1.47 provos 110: <ul>
111: <li>
1.88 brad 112: all components of a restrictive nature (i.e., patents, see
1.47 provos 113: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=ssl>ssl</a>))
1.55 deraadt 114: had been directly removed from the source code; any licensed or
115: patented components used external libraries.
1.47 provos 116: </li>
117: <li>
1.55 deraadt 118: had been updated to support ssh protocol 1.5.
1.47 provos 119: </li>
120: <li>
1.55 deraadt 121: contained added support for
1.47 provos 122: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=kerberos>kerberos</a>
123: authentication and ticket passing.
124: </li>
125: <li>
1.55 deraadt 126: supported one-time password authentication with
1.47 provos 127: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=skey>skey</a>.
128: </li>
129: </ul>
130: <p>
131:
1.55 deraadt 132: Roughly, we took a free license release of ssh and OpenBSD-ifyed it.
133: We get around the USA-based RSA patent by providing an easy way to
1.47 provos 134: automatically download and install a RSA-enabled package containing
135: shared library versions of libcrypto and libssl. These packages are
136: based on OpenSSL. People living outside the USA can freely use the
1.40 deraadt 137: RSA patented code, while people inside the USA can freely use it for
1.47 provos 138: non-commercial purposes. It appears as if companies inside the USA
139: can use the RSA libraries too, as long as RSA is not used in a profit
140: generating role.<p>
1.39 louis 141:
1.55 deraadt 142: But this way almost everyone will get ssh built into their OS.<p>
143:
144: <strong>NEW! OpenSSH supports protocol 2.0!</strong><p>
145:
146: Recently, we have extended OpenSSH so that it also does SSH 2 protocol.
147: Having a ssh daemon which can do all 3 major SSH protocols
148: (1.3, 1.5, 2.0) permits us much flexibility. Protocol 2.0 does not
149: use RSA for it's public key cryptography, relying instead on the DH
150: and DSA algorithms. In OpenBSD 2.7 -- which will ship with the new
151: OpenSSH -- you get protocol 2.0 support right out of the box! If
152: you wish to also support protocol 1.3 and 1.5, you simply add the
153: RSA package (as described our
154: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=ssl>ssl</a>
155: manual page), and restart the daemon.
1.39 louis 156:
1.18 deraadt 157: <a name=prng></a>
1.42 deraadt 158: <h3><font color=#e00000>Pseudo Random Number Generators</font></h3><p>
1.32 deraadt 159:
1.10 deraadt 160: A Pseudo Random Number Generator (PRNG) provides applications with a stream of
161: numbers which have certain important properties for system security:<p>
162:
163: <ul>
1.11 deraadt 164: <li>It should be impossible for an outsider to predict the output of the
165: random number generator even with knowledge of previous output.
166: <li>The generated numbers should not have repeating patterns which means
167: the PRNG should have a very long cycle length.
1.10 deraadt 168: </ul>
1.32 deraadt 169: <p>
1.10 deraadt 170:
1.13 deraadt 171: A PRNG is normally just an algorithm where the same initial starting
172: values will yield the same sequence of outputs. On a multiuser
173: operating system there are many sources which allow seeding the PRNG
174: with random data. The OpenBSD kernel uses the mouse interrupt timing,
175: network data interrupt latency, inter-keypress timing and disk IO
176: information to fill an entropy pool. Random numbers are available for
177: kernel routines and are exported via devices to userland programs.
1.36 deraadt 178: So far random numbers are used in the following places:<p>
1.13 deraadt 179:
1.10 deraadt 180: <ul>
1.14 deraadt 181: <li>Dynamic sin_port allocation in bind(2).
182: <li>PIDs of processes.
1.26 aaron 183: <li>IP datagram IDs.
1.14 deraadt 184: <li>RPC transaction IDs (XID).
185: <li>NFS RPC transaction IDs (XID).
186: <li>DNS Query-IDs.
187: <li>Inode generation numbers, see getfh(2) and fsirand(8).
1.31 aaron 188: <li>Timing perturbance in traceroute(8).
1.14 deraadt 189: <li>Stronger temporary names for mktemp(3) and mkstemp(3)
190: <li>Randomness added to the TCP ISS value for protection against
191: spoofing attacks.
1.87 brad 192: <li>random padding in IPsec esp_old packets.
1.14 deraadt 193: <li>To generate salts for the various password algorithms.
194: <li>For generating fake S/Key challenges.
1.44 provos 195: <li>In <a href=http://www.physnet.uni-hamburg.de/provos/photuris/>photurisd</a>
1.28 angelos 196: and <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=isakmpd>isakmpd</a>
197: to provide liveness proof of key exchanges.
1.10 deraadt 198: </ul>
1.1 deraadt 199:
1.10 deraadt 200: <p>
1.18 deraadt 201: <a name=hash></a>
1.42 deraadt 202: <h3><font color=#e00000>Cryptographic Hash Functions</font></h3><p>
1.32 deraadt 203:
1.10 deraadt 204: A Hash Function compresses its input data to a string of
1.36 deraadt 205: constant size. For a Cryptographic Hash Function it is infeasible to find:
206:
1.1 deraadt 207: <ul>
1.11 deraadt 208: <li>two inputs which have the same output (collision resistant),
209: <li>a different input for a given input with the same output
210: (2nd preimage resistant).
1.1 deraadt 211: </ul>
1.32 deraadt 212: <p>
1.10 deraadt 213:
1.12 millert 214: In OpenBSD MD5, SHA1, and RIPEMD-160 are used as Cryptographic Hash Functions,
1.36 deraadt 215: e.g:<p>
1.10 deraadt 216: <ul>
1.27 deraadt 217: <li>In <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=skey>S/Key</a>
218: to provide one time passwords.
1.87 brad 219: <li>In <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=ipsec>IPsec</a>,
1.44 provos 220: <a href=http://www.physnet.uni-hamburg.de/provos/photuris/>photurisd</a>
1.27 deraadt 221: and
222: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=isakmpd>isakmpd(8)</a>
223: to authenticate the data origin of packets and to ensure packet integrity.
224: <li>For FreeBSD-style MD5 passwords (not enabled by default), see
225: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=passwd.conf&sektion=5>
226: passwd.conf(5)</a>
227: <li>For TCP SYN cookie support (not enabled by default), see
228: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=options&sektion=4>
229: options(4)</a>
1.24 niklas 230: <li>In libssl for digital signing of messages.
1.10 deraadt 231: </ul>
1.32 deraadt 232: <p>
1.10 deraadt 233:
1.6 deraadt 234: <p>
1.71 jufi 235: <a name="trans"></a>
1.42 deraadt 236: <h3><font color=#e00000>Cryptographic Transforms</font></h3><p>
1.32 deraadt 237:
1.11 deraadt 238: Cryptographic Transforms are used to encrypt and decrypt data. These
239: are normally used with an encryption key for data encryption and with
240: a decryption key for data decryption. The security of a Cryptographic
241: Transform should rely only on the keying material.<p>
1.6 deraadt 242:
1.24 niklas 243: OpenBSD provides transforms like DES, 3DES, Blowfish and Cast for the
1.36 deraadt 244: kernel and userland programs, which are used in many places like:<p>
1.10 deraadt 245: <ul>
1.27 deraadt 246: <li>In libc for creating
1.71 jufi 247: <a href="http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=blf_key">Blowfish</a>
248: passwords. See also the <a href="papers/bcrypt-paper.ps">USENIX paper</a>
1.33 deraadt 249: on this topic.
1.27 deraadt 250: <li>In
1.87 brad 251: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=ipsec>IPsec</a>
1.27 deraadt 252: to provide confidentiality for the network layer.
253: <li>In Kerberos and a handful of kerberized applications, like
254: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=telnet>telnet</a>,
255: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=cvs>cvs</a>,
256: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=rsh>rsh</a>,
257: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=rcp>rcp</a>,
258: and
259: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=rlogin>rlogin</a>.
1.44 provos 260: <li>In <a href=http://www.physnet.uni-hamburg.de/provos/photuris/>
1.27 deraadt 261: photurisd</a> and
262: <a href=http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=isakmpd>isakmpd</a>
1.87 brad 263: to protect the exchanges where IPsec key material is negotiated.
1.24 niklas 264: <li>In AFS to protect the messages passing over the network, providing
1.27 deraadt 265: confidentiality of remote filesystem access.
1.24 niklas 266: <li>In libssl to let applications communicate over the de-facto standard
267: cryptographically secure SSL protocol.
1.10 deraadt 268: </ul>
1.1 deraadt 269:
1.10 deraadt 270: <p>
1.51 deraadt 271: <a name=hardware></a>
272: <h3><font color=#e00000>Cryptographic Hardware Support</font></h3><p>
273:
1.58 louis 274: OpenBSD, starting with 2.7, has begun supporting some cryptography hardware
275: such as accelerators and random number generators.
1.51 deraadt 276: <ul>
1.87 brad 277: <li><b>IPsec crypto dequeue</b><br>
278: Our IPsec stack has been modified so that cryptographic functions get
279: done out-of-line. Most simple software IPsec stacks need to do
1.82 pvalchev 280: cryptography when processing each packet. This results in synchronous
1.73 aaron 281: performance. To use hardware properly and speedily one needs to separate
1.51 deraadt 282: these two components, as we have done. Actually, doing this gains some
283: performance even for the software case.
284: <p>
1.80 deraadt 285: <li><b><a href="http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=hifn&sektion=4">
1.88 brad 286: Hifn 7751</a></b><br>
287: Cards using the Hifn 7751 can be used as a symmetric cryptographic
288: accelerator (i.e., <a href="http://www.powercrypt.com">PowerCrypt</a>).
1.51 deraadt 289: Current performance using a single Hifn 7751 on each end of a tunnel
1.88 brad 290: is 64Mbit/sec for 3DES/SHA1 ESP, nearly a 600% improvement over
291: using a P3/550 CPU. Further improvements are under way to resolve a
1.51 deraadt 292: few more issues, but as of April 13, 2000 the code is considered
1.53 deraadt 293: stable. We wrote our own driver for supporting this chip, rather
294: than using the (USA-written)
1.88 brad 295: <a href="http://www.powercrypt.com">PowerCrypt</a> driver, as well
1.87 brad 296: our driver links in properly to the IPsec stack.
1.53 deraadt 297: The 7751 is now considered slow by industry standards and many vendors
1.88 brad 298: have faster chips (even Hifn now has a faster but more expensive
1.89 ! jufi 299: chip). Peak performance with 3DES SHA1 ESP is around 64Mbit/sec.
1.60 deraadt 300: <p>
1.88 brad 301: (As an aside, Hifn was a difficult company to deal with; they even
1.60 deraadt 302: threatened to sue us over our non-USA reverse engineering of their
303: crypto unlock algorithm).
1.53 deraadt 304: <p>
1.69 deraadt 305:
306: <li><b>Hifn 6500</b><br>
1.86 brad 307: This device is an asymmetric crypto unit. It has support for RSA, DSA,
1.69 deraadt 308: and DH algorithms, as well as other major big number functions. It also
309: contains a very high performance random number generator. We have one
310: device, full documention, and sample code. Development has not yet
311: started.
312: <p>
313:
1.80 deraadt 314: <li><b><a href="http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=ubsec&sektion=4">
315: Broadcom BCM5805 (or beta chip Bluesteelnet 5501)</a></b><br>
1.65 deraadt 316: Just after the OpenBSD 2.7 release, we succeeded at adding preliminary
317: support for these early release parts provided to us by the vendor,
1.76 deraadt 318: specifically starting with the test chip 5501.
1.69 deraadt 319: These devices provide the highest performance symmetric cryptography
320: we have seen.
321: <p>
1.59 deraadt 322: Bluesteelnet was bought by Broadcom and started making real parts.
1.84 pvalchev 323: Their new BCM5805 is similar, except that they also add an asymmetric
1.65 deraadt 324: engine for running DSA, RSA, and other such algorithms. With approximate
1.88 brad 325: performance starting at more than four times as fast as the Hifn,
1.65 deraadt 326: hopefully this chip will become more common soon.
1.60 deraadt 327: <p>
328: The Broadcom/Bluesteelnet people have been great to deal with. They gave
1.69 deraadt 329: us complete documentation and sample code for their chips and a
330: sufficient number of cards to test with.
1.60 deraadt 331: <p>
1.74 deraadt 332: Post 2.8, this driver was also modified to generate random numbers on
333: the BCM5805 and similar versions, and feed that data into the kernel
334: entropy pool.
335: <p>
1.60 deraadt 336:
1.80 deraadt 337: <li><b><a href="http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=ises&sektion=4">
1.88 brad 338: Securealink PCC-ISES</a></b><br>
339: The <a href="http://www.securealink.com/pcc-ises.html">PCC-ISES</a> is
340: a new chipset from the Netherlands. We have received sample hardware
341: and documentation, and work on a driver is in progress. At the moment,
342: the driver is capable of feeding random numbers into the kernel entropy
343: pool.
1.60 deraadt 344: <p>
345:
1.88 brad 346: <li><b>SafeNet SafeXcel 2141</b><br>
1.60 deraadt 347: We have received documentation and sample hardware for the
1.88 brad 348: <a href="http://www.safenet-inc.com/technology/chips/Chip2141.asp">SafeNet</a>
1.72 deraadt 349: crypto cards. Work to support at least the symmetric cryptography of
350: these devices has started.
1.57 deraadt 351: <p>
352:
1.80 deraadt 353: <li><b><a href="http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=txp&sektion=4">
354: 3com 3c990</a></b><br>
1.77 deraadt 355: 3com gave us a driver to support the ethernet component of this chipset,
1.79 ericj 356: and based on that, we have written our own ethernet driver. This driver
357: has now been integrated once we were able to get a free license on the
1.88 brad 358: microcode. We have also received the information needed for supporting
359: the cryptographic functions, which will require a little bit of IPsec
360: subsystem rearranging. Check back later..
1.69 deraadt 361: <p>
362:
1.87 brad 363: <li><b>Intel IPsec card</b><br>
1.77 deraadt 364: Much like Intel does for all their networking division components, and
365: completely unlike most other vendors, Intel steadfastly refuse to provide
366: us with documentation. We have talked to about five technical people who
367: are involved in the development of those products. They all want us to
368: have documentation. They commend us on what we have done. But their hands
369: are tied by management who does not perceive a benefit to themselves for
370: providing documentation. Forget about Intel. (If you want to buy gigabit
371: ethernet hardware, we recommend anything else... for the same reason:
372: most drivers we have for Intel networking hardware were written without
373: documentation).
1.52 deraadt 374: <p>
1.69 deraadt 375:
1.80 deraadt 376: <li><b><a href="http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/man.cgi?query=pchb&sektion=4">
377: Intel 82802AB/82802AC Firmware Hub RNG</a></b><br>
1.74 deraadt 378: The 82802 FWH chip (found on i810, i820, i840, i850, and i860 motherboards)
1.87 brad 379: contains a random number generator (RNG). High-performance IPsec
1.74 deraadt 380: requires more random number entropy. As of April 10, 2000, we support
381: the RNG. We will add support for other RNG's found on crypto chips.
1.69 deraadt 382: <p>
383:
1.52 deraadt 384: <li><b>OpenSSL</b><br>
385: We have grand schemes for supporting crypto cards that can do RSA or DSA,
386: and exporting the functions of all crypto cards to OpenSSL so that
1.88 brad 387: userland programs (i.e., <a href="http://www.openssh.com">ssh</a>,
1.52 deraadt 388: <a href="http://www.modssl.org/">apache https</a>, etc)
389: can benefit.
1.51 deraadt 390: </ul>
391:
392: <p>
1.69 deraadt 393: <b>If people wish to help with writing drivers,
394: <a href=#people>come and help us</a>.</b>
395:
396: <p>
1.32 deraadt 397: <a name=people></a>
1.42 deraadt 398: <h3><font color=#e00000>International Cryptographers Wanted</font></h3><p>
1.32 deraadt 399:
400: Of course, our project needs people to work on these systems. If any
401: non-American cryptographer who meets the constraints listed earlier is
402: interested in helping out with embedded cryptography in OpenBSD,
403: please contact us.<p>
404:
1.33 deraadt 405: <p>
406: <a name=papers></a>
1.42 deraadt 407: <h3><font color=#e00000>Further Reading</font></h3><p>
1.33 deraadt 408:
409: A number of papers have been written by OpenBSD team members, about
410: cryptographic changes they have done in OpenBSD. The postscript
1.34 deraadt 411: versions of these documents are available as follows.<p>
1.33 deraadt 412:
413: <ul>
1.43 deraadt 414: <li>A Future-Adaptable Password Scheme.<br>
1.49 deraadt 415: <a href=events.html#usenix99>Usenix 1999</a>,
1.71 jufi 416: by <a href=mailto:provos@openbsd.org>Niels Provos</a>,
1.43 deraadt 417: <a href=mailto:dm@openbsd.org>David Mazieres</a>.<br>
1.33 deraadt 418: <a href=papers/bcrypt-paper.ps>paper</a> and
419: <a href=papers/bcrypt-slides.ps>slides</a>.
1.43 deraadt 420: <p>
421: <li>Cryptography in OpenBSD: An Overview.<br>
1.49 deraadt 422: <a href=events.html#usenix99>Usenix 1999</a>,
1.43 deraadt 423: by <a href=mailto:deraadt@openbsd.org>Theo de Raadt</a>,
424: <a href=mailto:niklas@openbsd.org>Niklas Hallqvist</a>,
425: <a href=mailto:art@openbsd.org>Artur Grabowski</a>,
426: <a href=mailto:angelos@openbsd.org>Angelos D. Keromytis</a>,
427: <a href=mailto:provos@openbsd.org>Niels Provos</a>.<br>
1.33 deraadt 428: <a href=papers/crypt-paper.ps>paper</a> and
429: <a href=papers/crypt-slides.ps>slides</a>.
1.62 niklas 430: <p>
431: <li>Implementing Internet Key Exchange (IKE).<br>
432: <a href=events.html#usenix2000>Usenix 2000</a>,
433: by <a href=mailto:niklas@openbsd.org>Niklas Hallqvist</a> and
434: <a href=mailto:angelos@openbsd.org>Angelos D. Keromytis</a>.<br>
435: <a href=papers/ikepaper.ps>paper</a> and
436: <a href=papers/ikeslides.ps>slides</a>.
1.63 deraadt 437: <p>
438: <li>Encrypting Virtual Memory</a><br>
439: <a href=events.html#sec2000>Usenix Security 2000</a>,
440: <a href=mailto:provos@openbsd.org>Niels Provos</a>.<br>
1.64 provos 441: <a href=papers/swapencrypt.ps>paper</a> and
442: <a href=papers/swapencrypt-slides.ps>slides</a>.
1.33 deraadt 443: </ul>
444:
1.32 deraadt 445: <p>
1.1 deraadt 446: <hr>
1.75 wvdputte 447: <a href=index.html><img height=24 width=24 src=back.gif border=0 alt=OpenBSD></a>
1.10 deraadt 448: <a href=mailto:www@openbsd.org>www@openbsd.org</a>
449: <br>
1.89 ! jufi 450: <small>$OpenBSD: crypto.html,v 1.88 2001/06/28 18:04:25 brad Exp $</small>
1.1 deraadt 451:
1.10 deraadt 452: </body>
453: </html>
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